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Third party (U.S. politics)

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Third party, or minor party, is a term used in the United States' two-party system for political parties other than the Republican and Democratic parties.

Third parties are most often encountered in presidential nominations. Third party vote splitting exceeded a president's margin of victory in three elections: 1844, 2000, and 2016. No third-party candidate has won the presidency since the Republican Party became the second major party in 1856. Since then a third-party candidate won states in five elections: 1892, 1912, 1924, 1948, and 1968. 1992 was the last time a third-party candidate won over 5% of the vote and placed second in any state.[1]

Competitiveness

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With few exceptions,[2] the U.S. system has two major parties which have won, on average, 98% of all state and federal seats.[3] There have only been a few rare elections where a minor party was competitive with the major parties, occasionally replacing one of the major parties in the 19th century.[4][5] The winner take all system for presidential elections and the single-seat plurality voting system for Congressional elections have over time helped establish the two-party system (see Duverger's law). Although third-party candidates rarely win elections, they can have an effect on them through vote splitting and other impacts.

Notable exceptions

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Main articles: List of third-party and independent performances in United States elections, List of third-party performances in United States presidential elections, and Third-party and independent members of the United States Congress

Greens, Libertarians, and others have elected state legislators and local officials. The Socialist Party elected hundreds of local officials in 169 cities in 33 states by 1912, including Milwaukee, Wisconsin; New Haven, Connecticut; Reading, Pennsylvania; and Schenectady, New York.[6] There have been governors elected as independents, and from such parties as Progressive, Reform, Farmer-Labor, Populist, and Prohibition. After losing a Republican primary in 2010, Bill Walker of Alaska won a single term in 2013 as an independent by joining forces with the Democratic nominee. In 1998, wrestler Jesse Ventura was elected governor of Minnesota on the Reform Party ticket.[7]

Sometimes a national officeholder that is not a member of any party is elected. Previously, Senator Lisa Murkowski won re-election in 2010 as a write-in candidate after losing the Republican primary to a Tea party candidate, and Senator Joe Lieberman ran and won reelection to the Senate as an "Independent Democrat" in 2006 after losing the Democratic primary.[8][9] As of 2024, there are only four U.S. senators, Angus King, Bernie Sanders, Kyrsten Sinema, and Joe Manchin, who identify as Independent and all caucus with the Democrats.[10]

The last time a third-party candidate carried any states in a presidential race was George Wallace in 1968, while the last third-party candidate to finish runner-up or greater was former president Teddy Roosevelt's 2nd-place finish on the Bull Moose Party ticket in 1912.[1] The only three U.S. presidents without a major party affiliation upon election were George Washington, John Tyler, and Andrew Johnson, and only Washington served his entire tenure as an independent. Neither of the other two were ever elected president in their own right, both being vice presidents who ascended to office upon the death of the president, and both became independents because they were unpopular with their parties. John Tyler was elected on the Whig ticket in 1840 with William Henry Harrison, but was expelled by his own party. Johnson was the running mate for Abraham Lincoln, who was reelected on the National Union ticket in 1864; it was a temporary name for the Republican Party.

More favorable electoral systems for third parties

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Electoral fusion

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This section is an excerpt from Electoral fusion in the United States.[edit]
Part of the Politics series
Voting
Balloting
Ballots
Candidates and Ballot measures
Collection
Counting
Electoral systems
Plurality and majoritarian systems
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Voting strategies
Protest votes
Voting patterns and effects
Protest votes
Electoral fraud and prevention
Prevention
icon Politics portal

Electoral fusion in the United States is an arrangement where two or more United States political parties on a ballot list the same candidate,[11] allowing that candidate to receive votes on multiple party lines in the same election.[12]

Electoral fusion is also known as fusion voting, cross endorsement, multiple party nomination, multi-party nomination, plural nomination, and ballot freedom.[13][14]

Electoral fusion was once widespread in the U.S. and legal in every state. However, as of 2024, it remains legal and common only in New York and Connecticut.[15][16][17]

Ranked-choice voting

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This section is an excerpt from Ranked-choice voting in the United States.[edit]
Ranked-choice voting in the US by state[18]
  Some state-wide elections
  Local option for municipalities to opt-in
  Local elections in some jurisdictions
  RCV banned state-wide

Ranked-choice voting (RCV) can refer to one of several ranked voting methods used in some cities and states in the United States. The term is not strictly defined, but most often refers to instant-runoff voting (IRV) or single transferable vote (STV), the main difference being whether only one winner or multiple winners are elected.

At the federal and state level, instant runoff voting is used for congressional and presidential elections in Maine; state, congressional, and presidential general elections in Alaska; and special congressional elections in Hawaii. Starting in 2025, it will also be used for all elections in the District of Columbia.

As of February 2024, RCV is used for local elections in 45 US cities including Salt Lake City and Seattle.[19] It has also been used by some state political parties in party-run primaries and nominating conventions.[20][21][22] As a contingency in the case of a runoff election, ranked ballots are used by overseas voters in six states.[19]

Since 2020, voters in seven states have rejected ballot initiatives that would have implemented, or allowed legislatures to implement, ranked choice voting. Ranked choice voting has also been banned in eleven states.

Approval voting

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This section is an excerpt from Approval voting.[edit]
On an approval ballot, the voter can select any number of candidates.
Approval voting is a single-winner rated voting system in which voters mark all the candidates they support, instead of just choosing one. It is a form of score voting where only two scores are allowed: 0 (not approved) and 1 (approved). The candidate with the highest approval rating is elected. Approval voting is currently in use for government elections in St. Louis, Missouri, USA, Fargo, North Dakota, USA, and in the United Nations to elect the Secretary General.

Proportional representation

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Proportional representation.[edit]
A joint Politics and Economics series
Social choice and electoral systems
Single-winner methods
Single vote - plurality methods

Condorcet methods

Positional voting

Cardinal voting

Proportional representation
Party-list

Quota-remainder methods

Approval-based committees

Fractional social choice

Semi-proportional representation

Mixed systems
By results of combination
By mechanism of combination

By ballot type

Paradoxes and pathologies
Spoiler effects

Pathological response

Strategic voting

Paradoxes of majority rule

Social and collective choice
Impossibility theorems

Positive results

icon Mathematics portal

Proportional representation (PR) refers to any type of electoral system under which subgroups of an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body.[23] The concept applies mainly to political divisions (political parties) among voters. The essence of such systems is that all votes cast – or almost all votes cast – contribute to the result and are effectively used to help elect someone. Under other election systems, a bare plurality or a scant majority are all that are used to elect candidates. PR systems provide balanced representation to different factions, reflecting how votes are cast.

Proportional representation means that each representative in an assembly is elected by a roughly equal number of voters. In the common case of electoral systems that only allow a choice of parties, the seats are allocated to parties in proportion to the vote tally or vote share each party receives.

Due to various factors, perfect proportionality is rarely achieved under PR systems. Optional rules applied in some PR systems may affect proportionality. Sometimes that effect is intended such as to suppress representation of small, extreme parties. The use of electoral thresholds (in list PR or MMP), small districts with few seats in each (in STV or list PR), or the absence or insufficient number of leveling seats (in list PR, MMP or AMS) may produce disproportionality. Other sources of disproportionality are electoral tactics, such as party splitting in some MMP systems.

Nonetheless, PR systems approximate proportionality much better than other systems[24] and are more resistant to gerrymandering and other forms of manipulation.

Barriers to third party success

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The presidential election results for all Libertarian Party candidates from 1972 to 2020

Winner-take-all vs. proportional representation

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See also: Duverger's law

In winner-take-all (or plurality voting), the candidate with the largest number of votes wins, even if the margin of victory is extremely narrow or the proportion of votes received is not a majority. Unlike in proportional representation, runners-up do not gain representation in a first-past-the-post system. In the United States, systems of proportional representation are uncommon, especially above the local level and are entirely absent at the national level (even though states like Maine have introduced systems like ranked-choice voting, which ensures that the voice of third party voters is heard in case none of the candidates receives a majority of preferences).[25] In Presidential elections, the majority requirement of the Electoral College, and the Constitutional provision for the House of Representatives to decide the election if no candidate receives a majority, serves as a further disincentive to third party candidacies.

In the United States, if an interest group is at odds with its traditional party, it has the option of running sympathetic candidates in primaries. Candidates failing in the primary may form or join a third party. Because of the difficulties third parties face in gaining any representation, third parties tend to exist to promote a specific issue or personality. Often, the intent is to force national public attention on such an issue. Then, one or both of the major parties may rise to commit for or against the matter at hand, or at least weigh in. H. Ross Perot eventually founded a third party, the Reform Party, to support his 1996 campaign. In 1912, Theodore Roosevelt made a spirited run for the presidency on the Progressive Party ticket, but he never made any efforts to help Progressive congressional candidates in 1914, and in the 1916 election, he supported the Republicans.

Micah Sifry argues that despite years of discontentment with the two major parties in the United States, third parties should try to arise organically at the local level in places where ranked-choice voting and other more democratic systems can build momentum, rather than starting with the presidency, a proposition incredibly unlikely to succeed.[26]

Spoiler effect

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Main article: Spoiler effect

Strategic voting often leads to a third-party that underperforms its poll numbers with voters wanting to make sure their vote helps determine the winner. In response, some third-party candidates express ambivalence about which major party they prefer and their possible role as spoiler[27] or deny the possibility.[28] The US presidential elections most consistently cited as having been spoiled by third-party candidates are 1844, 2000, and 2016.[29][30][31][32][33][34] This phenomenon becomes more controversial when a third-party candidate receives help from supporters of another candidate hoping they play a spoiler role.[35][36][37]

Ballot access laws

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Nationally, ballot access laws require candidates to pay registration fees and provide signatures if a party has not garnered a certain percentage of votes in previous elections.[38] In recent presidential elections, Ross Perot appeared on all 50 state ballots as an independent in 1992 and the candidate of the Reform Party in 1996. Perot, a billionaire, was able to provide significant funds for his campaigns. Patrick Buchanan appeared on all 50 state ballots in the 2000 election, largely on the basis of Perot's performance as the Reform Party's candidate four years prior. The Libertarian Party has appeared on the ballot in at least 46 states in every election since 1980, except for 1984 when David Bergland gained access in only 36 states. In 1980, 1992, 1996, 2016, and 2020 the party made the ballot in all 50 states and D.C. The Green Party gained access to 44 state ballots in 2000 but only 27 in 2004. The Constitution Party appeared on 42 state ballots in 2004. Ralph Nader, running as an independent in 2004, appeared on 34 state ballots. In 2008, Nader appeared on 45 state ballots and the D.C. ballot.

Debate rules

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From left to right: Libertarian, Green, and Constitution candidates at a 2024 Free & Equal debate in Las Vegas

Presidential debates between the nominees of the two major parties first occurred in 1960, then after three cycles without debates, resumed in 1976. Third party or independent candidates have been in debates in only two cycles. Ronald Reagan and John Anderson debated in 1980, but incumbent President Carter refused to appear with Anderson, and Anderson was excluded from the subsequent debate between Reagan and Carter. Independent Ross Perot was included in all three of the debates with Republican George H. W. Bush and Democrat Bill Clinton in 1992, largely at the behest of the Bush campaign.[citation needed] His participation helped Perot climb from 7% before the debates to 19% on Election Day.[39][40]

Perot did not participate in the 1996 debates.[41] In 2000, revised debate access rules made it even harder for third-party candidates to gain access by stipulating that, besides being on enough state ballots to win an Electoral College majority, debate participants must clear 15% in pre-debate opinion polls.[42] This rule has been in effect since 2000.[43][44][45][46][47] The 15% criterion, had it been in place, would have prevented Anderson and Perot from participating in the debates in which they appeared. Debates in other state and federal elections often exclude independent and third-party candidates, and the Supreme Court has upheld this practice in several cases. The Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD) is a private company.[42]

The Free & Equal Elections Foundation hosts various debates and forums with third-party candidates during presidential elections.

Major parties adopt third-party platforms

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They can draw attention to issues that may be ignored by the majority parties. If such an issue finds acceptance with the voters, one or more of the major parties may adopt the issue into its own party platform. A third-party candidate will sometimes strike a chord with a section of voters in a particular election, bringing an issue to national prominence and amount a significant proportion of the popular vote. Major parties often respond to this by adopting this issue in a subsequent election. After 1968, under President Nixon the Republican Party adopted a "Southern Strategy" to win the support of conservative Democrats opposed to the Civil Rights Movement and resulting legislation and to combat local third parties. This can be seen as a response to the popularity of segregationist candidate George Wallace who gained 13.5% of the popular vote in the 1968 election for the American Independent Party. In 1996, both the Democrats and the Republicans agreed to deficit reduction on the back of Ross Perot's popularity in the 1992 election. This severely undermined Perot's campaign in the 1996 election.[citation needed]

However, changing positions can be costly for a major party. For example, in the US 2000 Presidential election Magee predicts that Gore shifted his positions to the left to account for Nader, which lost him some valuable centrist voters to Bush.[48] In cases with an extreme minor candidate, not changing positions can help to reframe the more competitive candidate as moderate, helping to attract the most valuable swing voters from their top competitor while losing some voters on the extreme to the less competitive minor candidate.[49]

Current U.S. third parties

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Main article: List of political parties in the United States
This list does not include political organizations that do not run candidates for office but otherwise function similarly to third parties. For non-electoral political "parties", see here.
Currently, the Libertarian and Green parties are the largest in the U.S. after the Republican and Democratic parties. Shown here are signs of their 2016 campaigns, respectively.

Largest

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Top 5 U.S. third parties by registration (2024)
Party No. registrations[50] % registered voters[51]
Libertarian Party 704,455 0.44%
Green Party 210,053 0.13%
Conservative Party

of New York State

164,826 0.10%
Peace and

Freedom Party

138,238 0.09%
No Labels 109,920 0.07%

Smaller parties (listed by ideology)

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This section includes only parties that have actually run candidates under their name in recent years.

Right-wing

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This section includes any party that advocates positions associated with American conservatism, including both Old Right and New Right ideologies.

State-only right-wing parties
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Centrist

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This section includes any party that is independent, populist, or any other that either rejects left–right politics or does not have a party platform.

State-only centrist parties
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Left-wing

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This section includes any party that has a left-liberal, progressive, social democratic, democratic socialist, or Marxist platform.

State-only left-wing parties
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Ethnic nationalism

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This section includes parties that primarily advocate for granting special privileges or consideration to members of a certain race, ethnic group, religion etc.

Also included in this category are various parties found in and confined to Native American reservations, almost all of which are solely devoted to the furthering of the tribes to which the reservations were assigned. An example of a particularly powerful tribal nationalist party is the Seneca Party that operates on the Seneca Nation of New York's reservations.[52]

Secessionist parties

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This section includes parties that primarily advocate for Independence from the United States. (Specific party platforms may range from left wing to right wing).

Single-issue/protest-oriented

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This section includes parties that primarily advocate single-issue politics (though they may have a more detailed platform) or may seek to attract protest votes rather than to mount serious political campaigns or advocacy.

State-only parties
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1944

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Main article: 1944 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1944
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Unpledged Elector Texas Regulars 143,238 0.30%
Texas: 11.77%
Norman Thomas Socialist 79,017 0.16%
Wisconsin: 0.99%
Claude A. Watson Prohibition 74,758 0.16%
Indiana: 0.75%
Other 57,004 0.12% —
Total 346,218 0.72% —

1948

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Main article: 1948 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1948
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Strom Thurmond States' Rights Democratic 1,176,023 2.41%
Mississippi: 87.17%
Henry A. Wallace Progressive 1,157,328 2.37%
New York: 8.25%
Norman Thomas Socialist 139,569 0.29%
Wisconsin: 0.98%
Other 150,069 0.30% —
Total 2,623,896 5.38% —

1952

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Main article: 1952 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1952
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Vincent Hallinan Progressive 140,746 0.23%
New York: 0.90%
Stuart Hamblen Prohibition 73,412 0.12%
Indiana: 0.78%
Eric Hass Socialist Labor 30,406 0.05%
New Jersey: 0.24%
Other 56,759 0.09% —
Total 299,967 0.49% —

1956

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Main article: 1956 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1956
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Unpledged Elector Independent 196,318 0.32%
South Carolina: 29.45%
T. Coleman Andrews States' Rights 108,956 0.18%
Virginia: 6.16%
Eric Hass Socialist Labor 44,450 0.07%
Washington: 0.65%
Other 65,047 0.10% —
Total 414,771 0.67% —

1960

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Main article: 1960 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1960
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Unpledged Elector Democratic 286,359 0.42%
Alabama: 38.99%
Eric Hass Socialist Labor 47,525 0.07%
Washington: 0.88%
Rutherford Decker Prohibition 46,203 0.07%
Kansas: 0.45%
Other 123,255 0.18% —
Total 503,342 0.73% —

1964

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Main article: 1964 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1964
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Unpledged Elector Democratic 210,732 0.30%
Alabama: 30.55%
Eric Hass Socialist Labor 45,189 0.06%
Washington: 0.62%
Clifton DeBerry Socialist Workers 32,706 0.05%
Colorado: 0.33%
Other 48,118 0.07% —
Total 336,745 0.48% —

1968

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Main article: 1968 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1968
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
George Wallace American Independent 9,901,118 13.53%
Alabama: 65.86%
Henning Blomen Socialist Labor 52,589 0.07%
Colorado: 0.37%
Dick Gregory Peace and Freedom 47,149 0.06%
New York: 0.36%
Other 143,521 0.20% —
Total 10,144,377 13.86% —

1972

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Main article: 1972 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1972
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
John G. Schmitz American Independent 1,100,896 1.42%
Idaho: 9.30%
Linda Jenness Socialist Workers 83,380 0.11%
Colorado: 4.74%
Benjamin Spock People's 78,759 0.10%
California: 0.66%
Other 139,063 0.18% —
Total 1,402,098 1.80% —

1976

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Main article: 1976 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1976
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Eugene McCarthy Independent 744,763 0.91%
Oregon: 3.90%
Roger MacBride Libertarian 172,557 0.21%
Alaska: 5.49%
Lester Maddox American Independent 170,373 0.21%
Idaho: 1.74%
Other 472,572 0.58% —
Total 1,560,265 1.91% —

1980

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Main article: 1980 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1980
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
John B. Anderson Independent 5,719,850 6.61%
Massachusetts: 15.15%
Ed Clark Libertarian 921,128 1.06%
Alaska: 11.66%
Barry Commoner Citizens 233,052 0.27%
Oregon: 1.15%
Other 252,303 0.29% —
Total 7,126,333 8.24% —

1984

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Main article: 1984 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1984
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
David Bergland Libertarian 228,111 0.25%
Alaska: 3.07%
Lyndon LaRouche Independent 78,809 0.09%
Virginia: 0.62%
Sonia Johnson Citizens 72,161 0.08%
Louisiana: 0.56%
Other 241,328 0.26% —
Total 620,409 0.67% —

1988

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Main article: 1988 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1988
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Ron Paul Libertarian 431,750 0.47%
Alaska: 2.74%
Lenora Fulani New Alliance 217,221 0.24%
D.C.: 1.50%
David Duke Populist 47,004 0.05%
Louisiana: 1.14%
Other 202,638 0.22% —
Total 898,613 0.98% —

1992

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Main article: 1992 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1992
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Ross Perot Independent 19,743,821 18.91%
Maine: 30.44%
Andre Verne Marrou Libertarian 290,087 0.28%
New Hampshire: 0.66%
Bo Gritz Populist 106,152 0.10%
Utah: 3.84%
Other 269,507 0.24% —
Total 20,409,567 19.53% —

1996

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Main article: 1996 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 1996
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Ross Perot Reform 8,085,294 8.40%
Maine: 14.19%
Ralph Nader Green 684,871 0.71%
Oregon: 3.59%
Harry Browne Libertarian 485,759 0.50%
Arizona: 1.02%
Other 419,986 0.43% —
Total 9,675,910 10.04% —

2000

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Main article: 2000 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 2000
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Ralph Nader Green 2,882,955 2.74%
Alaska: 10.07%
Pat Buchanan Reform 448,895 0.43%
North Dakota: 2.53%
Harry Browne Libertarian 384,431 0.36%
Georgia: 1.40%
Other 232,920 0.22% —
Total 3,949,201 3.75% —

2004

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Main article: 2004 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 2004
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Ralph Nader Independent 465,650 0.38%
Alaska: 1.62%
Michael Badnarik Libertarian 397,265 0.32%
Indiana: 0.73%
Michael Peroutka Constitution 143,630 0.15%
Utah: 0.74%
Other 215,031 0.18% —
Total 1,221,576 1.00% —

2008

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Main article: 2008 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 2008
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Ralph Nader Independent 739,034 0.56%
Maine: 1.45%
Bob Barr Libertarian 523,715 0.40%
Indiana: 1.06%
Chuck Baldwin Constitution 199,750 0.12%
Utah: 1.26%
Other 404,482 0.31% —
Total 1,866,981 1.39% —

2012

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Main article: 2012 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 2012
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Gary Johnson Libertarian 1,275,971 0.99%
New Mexico: 3.60%
Jill Stein Green 469,627 0.36%
Oregon/Maine: 1.10%
Virgil Goode Constitution 122,389 0.11%
Wyoming: 0.58%
Other 368,124 0.28% —
Total 2,236,111 1.74% —

2016

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Main article: 2016 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 2016
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Gary Johnson Libertarian 4,489,341 3.28%
New Mexico: 9.34%
Jill Stein Green 1,457,218 1.07%
Hawaii: 2.97%
Evan McMullin Independent 731,991 0.54%
Utah: 21.54%
Other 1,149,700 0.84% —
Total 7,828,250 5.73% —

2020

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Main article: 2020 United States presidential election
Third-party candidates and results for 2020
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Jo Jorgensen Libertarian 1,865,535 1.18%
South Dakota: 2.63%
Howie Hawkins Green 407,068 0.26%
Maine: 1.00%
Rocky De La Fuente Alliance 88,241 0.06%
California: 0.34%
Other 561,311 0.41% —
Total 2,922,155 1.85% —

2024

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Main article: Third party and independent candidates for the 2024 United States presidential election

In 2023 and 2024, Robert F. Kennedy Jr. initially polled higher than any third-party presidential candidate since Ross Perot[53] in the 1992 and 1996 elections.[54][55][56] As Democrat Joe Biden withdrew from the race and the election grew closer, his poll numbers and notoriety would drop drastically.[57]

Third-party candidates and results for 2024
Candidate Party Votes Percentage Best state percentage
Jill Stein Green 782,056 0.51%
Maryland: 1.10%
Robert F. Kennedy Jr. Independent 755,018 0.49%
Montana: 1.96%
Chase Oliver Libertarian 640,871 0.41%
North Dakota: 1.71%
Claudia de la Cruz Party for Socialism and Liberation 146,822 0.09%
California: 0.46%
Cornel West Independent 71,848 0.05%
TBD
Randall Terry Constitution Party 41,267 0.03%
TBD
Other 128,775 0.08% —
Total 2,566,657 1.66% —

Map

[edit]

State wins

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Vote percentages

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Notes

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References

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  1. ^ a b O'Neill, Aaron (June 21, 2022). "U.S. presidential elections: third-party performance 1892-2020". Statista. Retrieved May 25, 2023.
  2. ^ Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ed. History of US political parties (5 vol. Chelsea House Pub, 2002).
  3. ^ Masket, Seth (Fall 2023). "Giving Minor Parties a Chance". Democracy. 70.
  4. ^ Blake, Aaron (November 25, 2021). "Why are there only two parties in American politics?". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved September 25, 2023.
  5. ^ Riker, William H. (December 1982). "The Two-party System and Duverger's Law: An Essay on the History of Political Science". American Political Science Review. 76 (4): 753–766. doi:10.1017/s0003055400189580. JSTOR 1962968. Retrieved April 12, 2020.
  6. ^ Nichols, John (2011). The "S" Word: A Short History of an American Tradition. Verso. p. 104. ISBN 9781844676798.
  7. ^ Kettle, Martin (February 12, 2000). "Ventura quits Perot's Reform party". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on December 16, 2017. Retrieved December 31, 2018.
  8. ^ "Senator Lisa Murkowski wins Alaska write-in campaign". Reuters. November 18, 2010. Archived from the original on November 16, 2018. Retrieved December 31, 2018.
  9. ^ Zeller, Shawn. "Crashing the Lieberman Party". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 21, 2018. Retrieved December 31, 2018.
  10. ^ "Justin Amash Becomes the First Libertarian Member of Congress". Reason.com. April 29, 2020. Archived from the original on October 10, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
  11. ^ Mitchell, Maurice; Cantor, Dan (March 22, 2019). "In Defense of Fusion Voting". The Nation.
  12. ^ Abadi, Mark (November 8, 2016). "This is why some candidates are listed more than once on your ballot". Business Insider.
  13. ^ "What is Fusion" (PDF). Oregon Working Families Party. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 15, 2012.
  14. ^ "Brief for appellant: Twin Cities Area New Party vs Secretary of State of Minnesota". Public Citizen Foundation.
  15. ^ "The Realistic Promise of Multiparty Democracy in the United States". New America. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
  16. ^ "Fusion Voting and Its Impact on the Upcoming Election". New York Law Journal. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
  17. ^ "Does Fusion Voting Offer Americans a Way Out of the Partisan Morass?". The New York Times.
  18. ^ "WHERE IS RCV USED?". RCV Resources. Ranked Choice Voting Resource Center. Retrieved June 22, 2024.
  19. ^ a b "Where is Ranked Choice Voting Used?". FairVote. Retrieved July 8, 2023.
  20. ^ "Perspective | How ranked-choice voting saved the Virginia GOP from itself". Washington Post. November 5, 2021. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved June 14, 2023.
  21. ^ "Ranked Choice Voting in Utah". Utah Ranked Choice Voting. Retrieved June 14, 2023.
  22. ^ "2020 State Convention". The Indiana Republican Party. May 20, 2020. Retrieved June 14, 2023.
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  37. ^ "Russians launched pro-Jill Stein social media blitz to help Trump, reports say". NBC News. December 22, 2018. Retrieved May 11, 2023.
  38. ^ Amato, Theresa (December 4, 2009). "The two party ballot suppresses third party change". The Record. Harvard Law. Archived from the original on June 23, 2012. Retrieved April 16, 2012. Today, as in 1958, ballot access for minor parties and Independents remains convoluted and discriminatory. Though certain state ballot access statutes are better, and a few Supreme Court decisions (Williams v. Rhodes, 393 U.S. 23 (1968), Anderson v. Celebrezze, 460 U.S. 780 (1983)) have been generally favorable, on the whole, the process—and the cumulative burden it places on these federal candidates—may be best described as antagonistic. The jurisprudence of the Court remains hostile to minor party and Independent candidates, and this antipathy can be seen in at least a half dozen cases decided since Nader's article, including Jenness v. Fortson, 403 U.S. 431 (1971), American Party of Tex. v. White, 415 U.S. 767 (1974), Munro v. Socialist Workers Party, 479 U.S. 189 (1986), Burdick v. Takushi, 504 U.S. 428 (1992), and Arkansas Ed. Television Comm'n v. Forbes, 523 U.S. 666 (1998). Justice Rehnquist, for example, writing for a 6–3 divided Court in Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party, 520 U.S. 351 (1997), spells out the Court's bias for the "two-party system," even though the word "party" is nowhere to be found in the Constitution. He wrote that "The Constitution permits the Minnesota Legislature to decide that political stability is best served through a healthy two-party system. And while an interest in securing the perceived benefits of a stable two-party system will not justify unreasonably exclusionary restrictions, States need not remove all the many hurdles third parties face in the American political arena today." 520 U.S. 351, 366–67.
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  49. ^ Wang, Austin Horng-En; Chen, Fang-Yu (2019). "Extreme Candidates as the Beneficent Spoiler? Range Effect in the Plurality Voting System". Political Research Quarterly. 72 (2): 278–292. doi:10.1177/1065912918781049. ISSN 1065-9129. JSTOR 45276909. S2CID 54056894.
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  53. ^ Nuzzi, Olivia (November 22, 2023). "The Mind-Bending Politics of RFK Jr". Intelligencer. Archived from the original on March 6, 2024. Retrieved March 6, 2024. The general election is now projected to be a three-way race between Biden, Trump, and their mutual, Kennedy, with a cluster of less popular third-party candidates filling out the constellation.
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  57. ^ Koretski, Katherine (August 8, 2024). "RFK Jr.'s incredible disappearing campaign". NBC News. Retrieved August 16, 2024.

Further reading

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